Antenna Design and Development Services

ORTENGA provides end-to-end antenna engineering services—from decomposing business requirements into actionable technical specifications to delivering complete antenna modules and implementing supporting algorithms in hardware, firmware, and software.

Our team of seasoned engineers brings deep experience across  Autonomous Automotive, SATCOM, Radar, Smart City, WiFi, and Mobile Terrestrial Radio Communications Systems.

We help businesses translate their strategic goals into the precise technical features needed to bring high-performance wireless solutions to market with confidence.

 

Triple Bands VHF and UHF Antennas

VHF and UHF mobile handheld (Walkie Talkie) radios are utilized by many.

Due to operating wavelength, they have range from few to tens of kilometers depending on the environment and condition.

The mobility requires compact, low weight, low power radio.  Antenna design Triple Bands topology is highly desired.

Partner with ORTENGA for your mutliband antenna design and development.

 

 

Multi Band Antenna

BT and WiFi share 2.4 GHz ISM band.  In addition, WiFi technology has 5 and 6 GHz bands.

A router or handheld device which supports both BT and WiFi would need to support multi band between 2 to 7 GHz.  Therefore, designing antenna aperture and radio front end that support multi bands is highly desirable.

In the case of wearable devices, the form factor of the mobile device is of prime concern.

In addition, the material and proximity in close space becomes challenging for typical antenna designer.

Augment ORTENGA in your wearable multi band antenna design and development.

WiGig Antenna

WiGig Antenna subsystem would require 25% fractional bandwidth.

The antenna subsystem module would be comprised of apertures, feeding and impedance matching networks.

The more sophisticated antenna subsystem could even have dynamic impedance and aperture matching network which are tailored for the used channel on the fly.

Advanced 5G or even 6G wireless systems will support holographic 3D connectivity for virtual reality, which requires 10’s of Gbps connection.

The access points will be local and available at designated location where virtual reality services are supported.

This technology will be relying on both beamforming and MIMO.

Augment ORTENGA for WiGig antenna subsystem design and development.

 

Antenna Array Far Field Radiation Patterns

Antenna arrays are used to achieve higher directivity relative to the array element.

The radiation pattern of an array can be computed as

Far Field Radiation Pattern = |EF * PF * AF|2

where, EF, PF, and AF are Element Factor, Pattern Factor, and Array Factor.

Element Factor is infinitesimal factor of single element antenna

Pattern Factor is radiation pattern of single antenna due to its current distribution over the antenna

Array Factor is radiation pattern of array due to isotropic element

Each of the above factors can be computed standalone and their products is Far Field Radiation Pattern of the array.

For instance, Marconi-Franklin Linear array antennas are stacked 3 dipole antenna.

The element factor is Hertzian dipole pattern.

The Pattern factor is the radiation pattern of single dipole due to sinusoidal current excitation or distribution.  And the Array factor is the pattern due to isotropic elements array.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna Array with Mutual Couplings

When calculating antenna array pattern for complete accuracy, the pattern of an array antenna must include the variations in the excitation currents as well as the pattern of each element acting under the influence of all coupling effects.

This is a difficult task if not impossible; however there are 2 techniques for addressing this problem, namely; isolated element and active element pattern approach.

In the isolated element pattern approach, the coupling effect is accounted for in the current excitation and is appropriate for very large arrays.

In the active element pattern approach, all coupling effects are accounted for through the active element.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna vs. Frequency Selective Filter

From the electrical engineering perspective, a filter is a device that passes signals of interest in the desired frequency band while discriminating other/undesired frequencies.

An antenna is typically considered a transducer device, which converts guided electromagnetic waves to spherical waves.

Both filters and antennas are typically passive devices and reciprocal (i.e. input and output can be swapped).  What is less known about antenna, yet can be mathematically shown is that it behaves as a “spatial filter”.

From the Fourier Transform theory, we know that a narrow pulse, in time domain, has a wide frequency/spectral content (i.e. time and frequency are reciprocal to each other).   To pass such a narrow pulse signal, a wide band filter is required.  Similarly, a narrow far-field antenna radiation pattern requires to pass wide “spatial frequencies”.  In other words, the antenna has to be electrically large (i.e. relative to wavelength). That is why, in the radio astronomy community, an antenna is viewed as “spatial filter”.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna Surrounding

Antenna performance not only depends on its design topology but also on the surroundings which impacts antenna impedance in real world application.

In other words, if one were to design an antenna and meets all its required performance in standalone condition, then when it is embedded with other radio components, the antenna behavior would change, either over frequency or for worst.

In fact, mobile handset antennas are tuned with human phantom after fabrication, to adjust tuning elements in such a way that meets requirements in presence of the human body.

More advanced mobile handsets have capability of adjusting the tuning elements on the fly to account for various surroundings and still meets acceptable antenna performance.

Very advanced mobile handsets have capability of adjusting impedance and aperture tuning elements on the fly.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna Array Factor over Ground Plane

5G NR, gNB, LEO SATCOM,  radar, and WiGig rely on beamforming, therefore Active Electronically Scanned Antenna Array, AESA.  Typically AESA has ground plane, consequently image theory must be utilized to arrive at proper radiation pattern of AESA for simulation and therefore in actual applications.  This particularly becomes important and critical for implementing Beamforming, Beam steering, and SLL management algorithms.

The appropriate simulations enable the architect, system design, and managements to validate assumptions made for feasibility of design.  ORTENGA provides simulation tools to validate your design and goes beyond what appropriate Phase Array Tool Box or SystemVue provide, independently.

Augment ORTENGA into your architect and system design teams to validate design before its implementations.

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Interference Cancellation by Antenna

Radio interference cancellation is a technique in which the interfering radio signal is suppressed by placing a null in radiation pattern of antenna or antenna array systems.

Far Field or Fraunhofer radiation pattern of an antenna is function of current or field distribution over the antenna aperture.

Antenna proximity can be divided to 3 regions; Reactive near field, Radiating /Fresnel near field, and Far Field/Fraunhofer.

Radio communication energy is targeted for Far Field of an Antenna.

The idea of radio interference cancellation via radiation pattern is similar to suppressing an unwanted signal via filter.

In fact, antenna is a “spatial filter”, see Similarities of Filter vs. Antenna, posted on August 5th.  This technique assumes that the direction of interfering signal is prior knowledge or dynamically can be detected.

By forming antenna arrays, the radiation pattern of over antenna array can be adjusted dynamically via phase relationship between each antenna feeding.

Alternatively, if the radio interfering signal is placed at side lobe of the radiation pattern, the unwanted signal strength can be adjusted via current or field distribution of antenna array.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna Design by AI

Frequency selective filters can be designed by CAD tools such as Genesys.

Antenna is spatial selective filter and similarly can be designed by CAD.

In facts, antenna array governing equations are similar to frequency selective filter and can be similarly modeled.

Design optimization tools will be key to useful simulator for the end users.

The remaining challenge is how to form factor the antenna and conform to required space.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna Tuners 

Historically antenna tuners meant any passive interface impedance matching device between the antenna and the RF front end.

This terminology has carried over to UE and/or mobile devices.

In addition, as the need for multiple bands antenna increased, the need for antennas that can operate at multiple bands became prime interest of ODMs.

Nowadays, antenna tuning could either imply antenna impedance tuning or antenna aperture tuning.

The aperture tuning mechanism is part of antenna structure and changes antenna resonance frequency, hence operating at multiple bands.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Sinuous Antenna

Log periodic antennas provide multi octave fractional bandwidth.

Sinuous antenna structure scales to multiple wavelengths gradually.

Therefore, it resonates at all of those wavelengths, consequently it has ideal antenna reception properties for UWB applications.

Sinuous antennas can be conformed to the desired space and be low profile.

Sinuous antenna radiation pattern is omni directional, hence low gain.

Consequently, they could be used in antenna array to achieve higher desired gain with proper array synthesis based on the application’s requirements.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Vivaldi Antenna

Log periodic antennas provide multi octave fractional bandwidth.

Tapered Vivaldi antenna structure scales to multiple wavelengths gradually.

Therefore, it resonates at all of those wavelengths, consequently it has ideal antenna reception properties for UWB applications.

3D and 2D Vivaldi antennas are used for various applications both in receiver and transmitter chains.

Vivaldi antennas have some gain that can be tailored for specific applications as single element.

Vivaldi antennas can also be used in antenna array to achieve higher gain, consequently lower beamwidth for beamforming applications.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

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Antenna Geometry Scaling

Antenna physical dimensions have always been challenging.

In fact, number one reason that radio frequencies, RF are used for radio communication is the antenna size for handheld devices.

That’s in order for our mobile radio or mobile phone to wirelessly connect, the radio frequencies must be utilized to physically realize an antenna.

Human audio frequency is anywhere from 20 – 20 KHz, which prohibits any handheld device antenna.

This is the history of radio frequency.

Now let’s fast forward to future, where 100 GHz to multi-THz radio are sought.

The outlook for Microwave or Nanowave signals may require another challenge yet in opposite to miniaturization.

At these frequencies it may be required and challenging to physically realize a much larger antenna than the operating wavelength.

Partner with ORTENGA in your Antenna design, development, and Bringup.

ORTENGA helps businesses to identify required technical features to realize their business goals.

Partner ORTENGA in your next product concept, design, and development to realize that business goal.

ORTENGA has seasoned engineering from Autonomous Automotive, SATCOM, radar, Smart City, WiFi, and Mobile Terrestrial Radio Communications industries in Antenna, ASIC, HW, FW, and SW engineering disciplines.

 

 

Antenna in Package, AiP

As FCC allocating higher frequency bands for 5G, it is expected that 6G will be sub Terahertz frequency bands starting at 125GHz.

At these frequencies the wavelength is so small and Ohmic losses are so high per unit length that it makes sense to integrate Antenna in Package, AiP, or even Antenna integrated with Front End Module silicon.

Therefore, 6G Technology will be about radio front end which is integrated within semiconductor technology.

Semiconductor technology and its capabilities will be centered and complete communication systems will be in order of 2”x2” at the most if not smaller.

Partner with ORTENGA in your next generation antenna design and development.

 

Why Antenna Radiates Electromagnetic Waves?

The electrical current is flow of electron [Coulomb per second] in a wire or conductor.

That electrical current represents the velocity of electron movement in the wire.

Velocity is vector quantity and has magnitude and direction, so does electrical current.

When there is constant current in a wire, it creates magnetic field around that wire and right-hand rule applies to determine the magnetic field.

The magnetic field around the wire or conductor is static or fixed, just like the magnetic field around a magnet.

You can experience the magnetic field around the magnet by putting some iron filings around the magnet to see direction of magnetic field of magnet.

If the electrons in the wire accelerate/decelerate (because of the shape of the wire or conductor), the magnetic field responds to that electron acceleration/deceleration.

By disturbing the magnetic field, the electric field is also disturbed, therefore the electromagnetic wave is generated.

James Clark Maxwell was the Scottish physicist and mathematician who discovered the missing term in Ampere’s Law that show the coupling of magnetic and electric field.

While James Clark Maxwell mathematically proved the coupling of electric and magnetic fields and time rate change of one cause the other, which effectively disturbs the electromagnetic fields, John Daniel Kraus intuitive descriptions of electron acceleration requirement for electromagnetic wave helps to design and develop antenna.

John Daniel Kraus explanation of electromagnetic radiation can be utilized to synthesize radiation pattern.

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Yagi-Uda Antenna

Legacy Terrestrial TV antenna is Yagi-Uda Antenna.

Yagi-Uda antenna is typically comprised of reflector, driver, and handful of director dipole elements, e.g., total of 5 – 7 elements.

The elements are placed within quarter of wavelength to create constructive fields in desired direction and destructive field in the undesired direction.

Yagi-Uda has moderate directive gain, e.g. 7 – 10 dBi, depending on number of directors.

Yagi-Uda antenna has advantage of antenna dipole array due to its additional gain over dipole, yet it is simple feeding network, similar to dipole.

Therefore, Yagi-Uda antenna is an elegant design for its simplicity yet effectiveness.

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Vivaldi 2D Antenna Array, aka Vivaldi Egg Crate Array

It is well known that Vivaldi antenna element scales with wavelength due to its taper aperture topology.

Consequently, Vivaldi antenna has broadband bandwidth.

2D Vivaldi antenna array could be designed for broadband bandwidth in mmW band.

This would be an ideal beamforming antenna array for both radio communication and radar systems that covers wide bands.

Partner with ORTENGA for design and development of 2D Vivaldi antenna array.

 

Horn Antenna

Horn is an aperture antenna with moderate to high gain, e.g. 10 – 20 dBi.

Horn antenna has good radiation efficiency and well impedance matching property due to its waveguide transmission line extension which can be tapered.

Horn antenna has excellent mathematical model to experimental measured data.  Consequently, horn antennas are used as the reference antenna for antenna chambers.

Partner with ORTENGA to design and develop Horn antenna for your radio communication or radar system.

 

Slotted Waveguide Antenna

Slotted Waveguide Antenna, SWA is used in high power and high gain radar applications.

Waveguide is utilized both at transmission line as well as the antenna.

Waveguide is known for its high power, low loss, and temperature control, consequently high-power pulsed radar applications.

Partner with ORTENGA for design and development of your SWA and radar system.

 

Antenna Radiation Efficiency vs. Resonance Frequency

Antenna optimum radiation occurs at or near its resonance frequency.

Resonance frequency is the frequency where the antenna impedance is real.

In general antenna impedance is in the form of Z(f) = R(f) + j X(f), and at the resonance frequency, f0, the reactance part is Zero, X(f0) = 0.

R(f) is the desired radiation resistance.  The larger R(f) is relative to X(f), the more EM radiation occurs, and vice versa.

When antenna is not near its resonance frequency, X(f) is larger than R(f), therefore most of power delivered to the antenna is not radiated and the antenna is inefficient radiator.

Notice, antenna impedance is frequency dependent, therefor outside of resonance, X(f) is non-zero, could be negative (capacitive) or positive (inductive).

For instance in case of dipole antenna, the dipole resonance frequency is near half wavelength; hence “half wavelength” dipoles are popular linear dipole antenna geometry.

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6G Multi Antenna Technology

6G would follow 5G multi antenna technology with some changes.

5G mmW has not been universally accepted terrestrial radio communication platform of choice.

The reason for 5G mmW delayed implementation is capital cost, CAPEX entrance threshold.  The cost of beamforming ASIC and mmW antennas are BOM differentiators compare to 4G and previous terrestrial radio communication 3GPP standards.

The number of gNB would increase in 6G as the cellular area is function of electrical length.  Another way put, as the frequency increases, the wavelength decreases, and the cell area in wavelength remain the same.

Partner with ORTENGA in Radio Communication System network design and development.

 

Dielectric Material Down-Selection in Antenna Design and Development

Any radio communication or radar system requires antenna.

In fact, most advanced systems require multiple antenna subsystem, such as; Beamforming or MIMO systems.

Antenna is at the air interface with the radio front-end electronics.

Antenna is a transducer that converts photons to electrons in the receiver and vice versa in the transmitter chain.

In turns out that antenna and radio front-end electronics require two distinct dielectric materials.

Radiation/photons require lower dielectric constant materials while electronics require higher dielectric constant materials.

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Broadband vs. Multi Band Antenna

Broadband antenna radiates over wide continuous bandwidth with acceptable radiation performance.

In general, antennas are reciprocal device, i.e. their radiation performance is the same regardless whether they are used as receiver or transmitter antenna.

Therefore, any statement about antenna can be taken as either receiver or transmitter antenna performance.

Multi Band antennas are radiator that have acceptable radiation performance over discrete (non-continuous) bands.

It is fallacy to assume that broadband antennas are preferred over multi band antenna.

Think of multi band antennas as frequency selective filter outside of their operating radiating frequency inter-band.  Therefore, technically, multi band antennas have two objectives, first to radiate in the bands of interest.  Second, they filter out of inter band or undesired signals.

Product definition is the most important scoping part of any consumer electronics and comprised of Architecture, Antenna /ASIC /Algorithm of all systems or applications.

Partner with ORTENGA for specifications, design and development of your new product antennas.

 

Meander Antenna

Meander antenna topology is utilized to reduce the area or size of monopole antenna.

Meander design enables 2D implementation in printed board and integration with other electronics or 3D high power capabilities.

Wideband Meander antenna can be designed using various techniques.

Partner with ORTENGA for design and development of Meander antenna in your product.

 

Absolute vs. Fractional Bandwidth

Electrical component operating Bandwidth, BW is of great concern when you design any system, SATCOM, Terrestrial, radar, or WiFi.

It is important to realize that operating BW in general is device or even vendor dependent parameter.

Therefore, it is prudent to read datasheets carefully and if not defined, ask appropriate stakeholders about the defined BW for that datasheet.

For instance, in frequency selective filter typically definition for BW is -3 dB for its insertion loss.

That -3 dB BW definition is typically applied for frequency selective filter various topologies, except for Tchebychev filter design.

For Tchebychev filter topology, equal ripple BW is applied which is less than -3 dB.

Here are some various BW definitions, -3 dB, -20 dB, or 99%.

As an electrical component designer, the absolute BW is not of main interest.

For instance, an antenna operating in HF band is supposed to operate between 3 – 30 MHz, or 27 MHz of absolute BW.  That is not an easy design.

To better understand the reason behind this statement, let’s think about half wavelength dipole design as an example.

The wavelength at 3 MHz is 100 m, whereas the wavelength at 30 MHz is 10 m.

The half wavelength dipole antenna at 3 MHz is roughly 50 m long, whereas at 30 MHz is 5 m long, an order of magnitude difference.

And it suffices to say that the half wavelength antenna behavior would drastically changes over this 27 MHz.

Now, if the operating frequency of that dipole antenna is at 300 MHz and requires 27 MHz absolute BW, that is fairly straightforward design.

At 300 MHz, the wavelength is 1 m and 27 MHz absolute BW is less than 10% change or 0.1 wavelength.  Therefore, the antenna design is feasible and straightforward.

Regardless of the antenna topology, dipole or not, that the fraction BW is what should be considered.

In fact, the fractional BW should be considered even for any other electrical components beside antenna.  The same challenges are applicable.

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Why HF Dipole Antennas are Hollowed and Tapered?

As the wavelength increases, i.e. frequency decreases, the length of dipole increases.

High Frequency, HF band stands for 3 – 30 MHz or 100 to 10 m wavelength.

At these wavelengths the weight of a solid material dipole is considerable.

From antenna function perspective, the electrons travel at the skin of dipole, i.e. skin depth.  Therefore, the central part of the dipole is not contributing to the electrical performance of the antenna or negligible.

By designing a hollow dipole, the weight and the material cost of the dipole is reduced without an impact to its electrical performance.

The dipole mounting and installation are also easier.

Tapering dipole along its length increases dipole bandwidth.

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Laser Direct Structuring Antenna

Laser Direct Structuring, LDS is a manufacturing process which enables placing an antenna (conductive trace) onto 3D structure such as injection molded plastic or substrate.

LDS technology is utilized in Apple wireless headset.

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Antenna Loading

Antenna loading is a generic term and pertains to various configurations.

Here are some examples.

Mobile phone or headset antennas are typically designed for operating frequency range using antenna CAD tools.

Once designed and built, their matching network needs to be tweaked to real application of the antenna surroundings.

The mobile phone antenna is loaded with human phantom, effectively salt-water container to mimic human head.

The antenna input impedance would change due antenna surroundings, consequently the antenna de-tunes, e.g. the resonance frequency changes.

Depending on the de-turning, either the antenna impedance matching needs to be tweaked or antenna structure need to be resized to account for the loaded antenna.

For frequencies where wavelength is larger than the physical available structure, typically smaller antenna is designed with inductive loading.

The inductive loading is to cancel out the capacitive part of antenna impedance.

This is applicable as long as the real of antenna impedance is considerable for radiation, i.e. radiation efficiency.

If the desired radiation efficiency is not achievable, that implies the antenna may need to be resistive loaded to increase impedance matching whereby improves radiation efficiency.

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Electromagnetic Angle of Arrival or Direction-Finding Algorithms Dependency on Antenna

Electromagnetic, EM Angle of Arrival, AoA or Direction Finding, DF algorithms’ performance depends on the EM sensors, i.e. antennas utilized.

Typically, there is a distinction between AoA and DF algorithms, even though their names appear similar, yet in the radar industry AoA and DF have different implications.

AoA refers to angle in which EM wave source is located in azimuth plane or plane of reference.

Whereas, DF refers to AoA plus range to the EM source, i.e. geo location.

Therefor DF algorithm requires additional inputs relative to AoA algorithm.

AoA or DF requires at least two sensors for differential measurement of either amplitude, time, phase, or envelope of the EM waves.

Antennas utilized for EM sensing in AoA or DF are major contributors to the error in the measurements, therefore these antennas have to be specified, designed and developed with the AoA or DF performance objectives in mind.

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Circularly Polarized Antenna Axial Ratio     

Circularly Polarized, CP antennas are utilized in SATCOM and Radar applications.

When antenna CP is specified and every tenth of dB in SNR has to be accounted for to achieve proper radio communication link or DF algorithm performance, then the accuracy of the antenna  CP have to be quantified.

The metric to quantify antenna CP is called Axial Ratio, AR.

AR is the ratio of major to minor axis of an ellipse.

A line can be thought of an extreme ellipse where the minor axis is zero.

A circle can be thought of an ellipse where the major and minor axes are equal.

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Antenna Design Flow

For any radio or radar system to perform as expected, there has to be a clear use cases and expectations under which the system to operate.

The use cases define what the system is designed for.

The use cases are to fulfill the business goals or requirements and return of investment.

Therefore, the use cases are the intersection of business goals and system definition.

The radio or radar systems are composed of 3 distinct engineering disciplines, namely; Antenna, ASIC/HW, Algorithms /FW/SW.

The following antenna design flow diagram illustrates the step in defining, designing, simulating, fabricating, and measuring antenna performance in hierarchical manner to fulfill the system requirements and business goals.

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Side Lobe Level in Antenna Radiation Pattern

Side Lobe Level, SLL in antenna radiation patter is undesired.

Antenna SLL picks up unwanted (noise) signals from the undesired directions in the radio communication or radar systems.

While the main lobe of radiation pattern is supposed to pick up the desired signal in the radio communication or radar systems.

It turns out that SLL can be controlled by adjusting the current/voltage distributions on the antenna aperture.

The smoother the current/voltage distributions roll off from its peak to zero at the aperture edge, the smaller SLL.

In contrary, the sharper the current/voltage distribution from its peak to zero at the aperture edge, the narrower radiation beamwidth.

Therefore, there is a trade off between antenna beamwidth and SLL.

Antenna designer can effectively control SLL if s/he understands the radio communication or radar system use cases.

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Bode-Fano Impedance Matching Criteria

Ultra Wide Band, UWB antenna or circuit are in high demand.

As the bandwidth, BW, increases, the Q factor, Q, decreases, therefore the return loss decreases.

Bode-Fano criteria puts an upper bound on the quality of impedance matching.

It states the relationship between BW and the return loss.

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Quarter Wave Transformer for Patch Antenna

Quarter wave transformer is a typical impedance matching technique for patch antenna with microstrip transmission line.

Patch antenna is typically utilized for embedded electronics in array configurations.

Antenna array provides higher gain or narrower beamwidth.

Narrow beamwidth has more concentrated energy and provides narrow spatial resolution, therefore requires beamforming technique.

There are various techniques to achieve beamforming to pinpoint the signal energy to a particular direction.  Each beamforming architecture has its own advantages and challenges.

Proper beamforming architecture should be selected to not only achieve technical requirements but also and more importantly to fulfill business goals and return of investment.

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Open Stub for Filter or Impedance Matching of Patch Antenna

Open stub is a microstrip transmission line that can be used for impedance matching or designing frequency selective filter feeding a patch antenna.

Single element impedance matching is utilized for narrow bandwidth, 5 – 10 % fractional BW.

When wider BW or filtering of unwanted signals are required, open stub can be utilized in multi elements network.

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16×16 Antenna Array Radiation Pattern with Beam Forming and SLL Management Algorithms

Figure 1 diagram illustrates a 16×16 (64 Square Wavelengths) rectangular antenna array which is typically utilized in 5G infrastructure, gNB, 802.11ay, WiGig, Fixed Wireless Access, FWA, Short Range Radar, SRR, or eHealth nowadays at mmW frequencies.  Keep in mind that this array can be integrated as part of mMIMO as well.

Figure 1: 16×16 Rectangular Antenna Array in x-y plane

This 256 elements array has considerable directivity and gain.  The additional gain of array over single element antenna is 21 – 24 dB, which enables dB per dB better SINR in the radio link, consequently higher Spectral Efficiency, SE.  It is worth mentioning that higher SINR or effectively Eb/N0 results in higher order modulation alphabets, [bps/Hz].  A higher order modulation alphabet is directly proportional to spectral efficiency with proportionality constant of Code Rate, i.e. SE = (bps/Hz) * CR.  This is in essence the reason behind 5G NR throughput or better range/velocity resolution in radar applications.

Figure 2 diagram illustrates radiation pattern of the array when it is pointing to broadside or theta0 = 0°.  For this configuration, the directivity and gain are at highest, whereas the beamwidth is narrowest.

Figure 2: 16×16 Antenna Array Beamforming at Broadside,  theta0 = 0°

Figure 3 illustrates 16×16 AF Universal radiation pattern for theta0 = 0°, where HPBW = ~7°.

Figure 3: 16×16 AF radiation pattern Universal Plot for theta0 = 0°

Figure 4 diagram illustrates array pointing at theta0 = 45°.

Figure 4: Antenna Array Beamforming at 45° from Broadside

Figure 5 illustrates Universal plot of the array at theta0 = 45°.

Figure 5: 16×16 AF Universal Plot at theta0 = 45°

Notice the HPBWtheta = 9° has increased, i.e. aka beam broadening, as the array pointing away from broadside.  That in turns results in gain roll off ~2dB, which is expected due to decrease in array aperture size.

Figure 6 illustrates Universal plot of the array pointing at phi0 = 55° for theta0 = 45° plane or cut, HPBW = ~9°.

Figure 6: 16×16 AF radiation patter for theta0 = 45° plane

For the antenna array the SLL can be designed to not exceed specifications with minimum penalty in AF directivity or equivalently the gain.  For this optimized design, the directivity trade-off is ~0.5dB, yet SLL are typically improved more than several dB at the least.  Therefore, during the operation of overall radio system, the transmitter power efficiency is optimized and yields better overall C/N or SINR, consequently, better spectral efficiency is achieved.

Any other (theta,phi) pointing angle can similarly be synthesized by the 16×16 antenna array.  The above figures are just examples of antenna array capabilities.

These radiation patterns are for isotropic sources and depending on your system impairments additional noise sources can be introduced in to simulations to mimic the system under analysis and synthesis.  For instance, ORTENGA can include amplitude taper noise and/or inter-element phase error based on HW implementations and limitations, two common errors that contribute to KPI of any antenna array.

ORTENGA has modeling with noise profile for beamforming and SLL performance for various tapering profiles.  Also, ORTENGA has capabilities to design larger array size, circular, and/or concentric shapes.  ORTENGA algorithms provide minimum SLL for minimum beamwidth, effectively optimum antenna array gain.  There is misconception that maximizing antenna array gain provides better C/N.  However, in practice the overall transmitter must meet FCC emission regulation during the operation, which forces the transmitter to back off from maximum power due to unwanted SLL, therefore under-utilizing transmitter power efficiency.

 

Why some applications use Antenna Array?

Antenna Array is group of antennas that are either in linear or planar formation and interconnected to produce a more directional radiation pattern.

The amplitude pattern on array element controls the side lobe level, whereas the inter-element phase shift controls the beam pointing angle.

The radiation beam pointing angle is called, beam boresight.

The additional directivity is proportional to the number of elements in the array.

In planar formation, the more elements in a given axis increases the directivity or reduces the beamwidth for that axis.

It is worthwhile to mention that not every group of antennas form an array, e.g., MIMO.

MIMO utilizes group of antennas to achieve better SINR by exploiting multipath, i.e. spatial diversity.

The antennas in MIMO could radiate different or distinct signals, whereas in the antenna array, they radiate the same signal.

Here is a related content, MIMO vs. Beamforming.

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MIMO vs. Beamforming

MIMO is based on multiple antennas similar to antenna array however each antenna is working independently of other antennas.  The overall data is decomposed to lower data rate and each antenna is transmitting portion of that data, independently.  In essence MIMO is using spatial diversity and multiplexing for very high data rate transmission.  The spacing between each antenna is a wavelength to create adequate isolation while uncorrelated signals are picked up by each antenna.

Beamforming is achieved via Phased Array Antennas.  The Phased Array Antennas are based on array technologies which have been used extensively in military applications in the past 4 decades.  The antenna arrays electronically steers the beam to illuminate the intended target.  The beam steering occurs via changing the relative phase of each antenna element, such that the overall beam is formed of construction of Electromagnetic Waves at desired direction in the far field and produce higher SNR compare to single antenna at the receiver end.  The Phased Array Antennas are working together to achieve high gain/directional antenna, hence higher SNR at the receiver. The spacing between each antenna element is typically half wavelength to avoid grating lobe.

5G Technology will be utilizing massive MIMO as well as Beamforming, BF.  Massive MIMO is intended for below 6GHz, whereas BF will be used for mmW bands (i.e. where wavelength is in order of mm, e.g. 30GHz).

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Antenna Array Feed Network

Antenna array requires elaborate feed network to meet technical requirements.

The feed network impacts the bandwidth, insertion loss, isolation, polarization, and SLL.

Insertion loss would impact the overall efficiency and gain.

Therefore, the feed network requires careful design considerations, trade off analysis among technical requirements, and implementations of proper feed network topology.

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Fractal Antennas

Maximum antenna radiation efficiency occurs at resonance frequency and is operable near resonance frequency.

Away from resonance frequency, the antenna is not efficient radiator, hence is not antenna any more.

This phenomenon is more of concern at low frequency where antenna size is large.

Therefore, miniaturization of antenna and adequate bandwidth are prime design goals.

Fractal antennas are meant to address the miniaturization and bandwidth by changing the antenna geometry in a such way to increase its effective electrical area for given space.

For instance, dipole antenna resonates around half wavelength of the operating frequency.

By indenting the dipole, it can resonate below half wavelength, as the indentation increases the dipole aperture hence reducing the resonance frequency.

The indentation technique can be applied to many antennas’ topology in order to increase the antenna effective electrical aperture.

The indentation cause acceleration/deceleration of electrons over a longer aperture, hence electrically the antenna appears larger.

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What is an Antenna?

IEEE Standard for Definitions of Terms for Antennas is a document that defines almost all antenna radiator terminology.

Interestingly even the IEEE document does not define what an antenna is.

Here are 3 definitions for an antenna from different perspective.

Antenna is a transitional device, transducer that converts:

  1. Guided electromagnetic wave from a transmission line to plane wave in the free space, and vice versa (Electromagnetic wave view)
  2. Electrons motion to photons (Physics view)
  3. Transmission line impedance to intrinsic impedance of the free space (Circuits view)

Although, this question appears basic yet it has significant implications in designing and developing antenna as well as documenting related technical content and patent.

It gets even trickier to define where that air interface is.

That could explain why AIEE, IRE, and IEEE have avoided the antenna definition since 1884.

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iPhone 4 Antenna issue, aka Antennagate

It is well known that antenna surrounding impacts the antenna performance.

Somehow that critical antenna engineering and science was missed or ignored during iPhone 4 original design product.

The antenna issue surfaced when the users were holding the iPhone 4 in a certain way, the radio signal significantly diminished or lost completely.

One could say that it was not an antenna issue yet a product issue as the antenna integration into the iPhone 4 mechanical casing was too close to the user holding it.

Once the issue was acknowledged and understood by the stakeholders, the short-term mitigation was to issue free Apple designed iPhone case.

Although the iPhone case appeared minor yet it added additional space between the user and antenna, consequently mitigating the antenna surrounding issue somewhat.

Apple naturally investigated and looked for more robust solution to address the antenna issue.

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Miniaturizing Dipole Antenna

Half wavelength dipole antenna is a typical dipole design for Omni directional transmit and/or receive applications.

The half wavelength dipole antenna resonates slightly below half wavelength, about 95% of half wavelength.

The half wavelength dipole antenna is an efficient radiator at or near its resonance frequency.

Below dipole resonance frequency, the dipole input impedance has capacitive component in addition to radiative component, aka radiation resistance.

In some applications, where the physical size of the half wavelength dipole is larger than the available space, dipole miniaturization is necessary and required.

One of the legacy techniques to electrically enlarge effective aperture of the dipole antenna, hence reducing its resonance frequency, is to add inductive load to the dipole.

The added inductor is selected to cancel the capacitive component of the dipole antenna input impedance below its resonance frequency, therefore the dipole antenna resonates even at lower frequency than the half-wavelength.

The placement of the inductor determines its degree of impact on the effective aperture of the dipole antenna.

Where the current is maximum has the most impact on effective aperture of the dipole antenna and resonance frequency.

The same technique can be applied to printed dipole antenna utilized in mobile devices, such as smart phone.

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Dipole Antenna Miniaturization using Material Coating

Printed dipole antenna miniaturization to fit in tight spaces such as smart phone is desirable and drives the success of many wireless products.

One of the ways to miniaturize printed dipole antenna is to coat it with some special material which enlarges effective aperture of the dipole antenna, therefore reducing its resonance frequency.

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From Business Goals to Measured Antenna Performance
Why System-Driven Antenna Design Protects ROI

For any radio or radar system to perform as expected, it must begin with clearly defined use cases and operating expectations.

Use cases define what the system is designed to do, under which conditions it must operate, and how success will be measured. Ultimately, these use cases exist to fulfill business goals—whether that is performance differentiation, cost targets, deployment constraints, or return on investment (ROI).

In practice, use cases sit at the intersection of business objectives and system definition.

Modern radio and radar systems are inherently multidisciplinary. They are composed of three tightly coupled engineering domains:

  • Antenna
  • ASIC / Hardware
  • Algorithms / Firmware / Software

Decisions made in one domain directly affect the others. As a result, antenna design cannot be treated as an isolated activity—it must be driven by system-level requirements and validated continuously against both technical and business objectives.

A Hierarchical Antenna Design Flow

The antenna design flow illustrated above shows a top-down, closed-loop process that connects business intent to measured antenna performance:

  1. Use Cases Derived from Business Requirements
    The process begins by translating business goals into concrete system use cases.
  2. System Requirements Definition
    System-level requirements are established across antenna, ASIC, and algorithm domains to ensure architectural alignment.
  3. Antenna Requirements
    Electrical, mechanical, environmental, and integration constraints are derived directly from system requirements.
  4. Antenna Design and Simulation
    The antenna is designed and simulated to verify performance against requirements before fabrication.
  5. Implementation and Fabrication
    The design is realized in hardware, accounting for materials, packaging, and manufacturing constraints.
  6. Measurement and Validation
    Measured performance is compared against simulations and requirements, closing the loop and validating ROI assumptions.

This hierarchical approach ensures that antenna performance is not only optimized in isolation, but validated against system requirements and business goals at every stage.

Why This Matters

Many antenna programs fail not because of poor electromagnetic design, but because of misalignment:

  • Between business goals and system requirements
  • Between system requirements and antenna specifications
  • Between simulations and real-world measurements

A structured, system-driven antenna design flow reduces technical risk, prevents late-stage surprises, and protects time-to-market.

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Antenna Design, Audit, and System Validation

From Physics to Product

The Challenge

Defining an antenna is deceptively difficult.

Even the IEEE Standard for Antennas avoids a single, formal definition—because an antenna is not just a component.
It is the boundary between circuits, electromagnetics, and free space.

In practice, antenna failures rarely come from radiation physics alone. They come from:

  • Unclear system boundaries
  • Incorrect assumptions at the feed, interface, or environment
  • Misalignment between RFIC, antenna, and system teams
  • Validation performed too late—or against the wrong metrics

When this happens, performance gaps appear only after integration, certification, or field deployment—when fixes are most expensive.

ORTENGA’s Approach

ORTENGA treats the antenna as a system interface, not a standalone radiator.

We analyze antennas from three synchronized perspectives:

  • Electromagnetic: guided waves transitioning to radiated fields
  • Circuit: impedance transformation from transmission line to free space
  • System: interaction with packaging, platform, environment, and use case

This unified view ensures antenna decisions align with real system constraints, not isolated simulations.

Our Antenna Services

Antenna Design Audit

  • Independent review of antenna architecture, assumptions, and models
  • Verification of near-field and far-field boundaries
  • Feed, impedance, and matching network evaluation
  • Identification of hidden risk before tape-out or fabrication

Antenna Design & Development

  • Concept-to-implementation antenna design
  • Integration with RFIC, front-end, and packaging constraints
  • Performance optimization across bandwidth, efficiency, and environment
  • OTA readiness for certification and deployment

System-Level Validation

  • Correlation of simulation, lab, and OTA measurements
  • Verification against use-case-driven KPIs
  • Clear documentation for SoWs, customer deliverables, and internal reviews

Where ORTENGA Delivers the Most Value

  • Mobile and terrestrial wireless (4G, 5G, emerging 6G)
  • Radar and sensing systems
  • SATCOM platforms (GEO and LEO)
  • Custom RF and mixed-signal hardware programs

Whether you are validating first hardware, resolving unexpected performance gaps, or preparing for scale, ORTENGA provides technical clarity where definitions break down.

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When antenna performance defines system success, assumptions are not enough.

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Why 6G Fails Without Antenna-Package-Silicon Co-Design

The Hidden Integration Risk at Sub-Terahertz Frequencies

As the FCC continues allocating higher-frequency spectrum for 5G, it is increasingly clear that 6G will extend into sub-terahertz frequency regimes. While final allocations are not yet defined, much of today’s 6G research and roadmap discussion points toward operation above ~100 GHz, with ~125 GHz and above often cited as a practical integration inflection point.

Note: “~125 GHz” is used here as a representative sub-THz design threshold; actual 6G bands and regional allocations may differ.

At these frequencies, the physics change decisively.

Wavelengths become extremely small, while ohmic losses per unit length increase sharply. Traditional interconnects, long feedlines, and discrete antenna implementations quickly become inefficient—both electrically and thermally. The result is unavoidable: antennas must move closer to the silicon.

This is why Antenna-in-Package (AiP)—and in some cases antennas integrated directly with the front-end module—emerges as the dominant architecture for 6G radios.

In the 6G era, the radio front end is no longer a board-level problem. It is a semiconductor-centric system problem, where antenna performance, packaging, thermal behavior, and RF circuitry must be co-designed as a single entity.

Semiconductor technology and its packaging capabilities will define system performance. Entire communication systems—antenna, RF front end, and signal conditioning—will shrink to form factors on the order of 2” × 2”, or smaller, while operating at frequencies once reserved for laboratory instruments.

6G will not be enabled by antennas alone.
It will be enabled by antenna, package, and silicon acting as one system.

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The Hard Part of AI Antenna Design Isn’t the Math

Why Form Factor, Integration, and System Constraints Define Real-World Performance

Modern AI tools can optimize antenna patterns, sidelobes, and efficiency with the same mathematical rigor long used to design frequency-selective filters. In theory, an antenna is simply a spatial filter, governed by equations that simulators and AI can explore exhaustively.

Yet this is where most antenna programs require system-level constraint clarity before design truly begins. The moment an optimized design leaves the simulator and encounters the product—its enclosure, materials, batteries, displays, cables, and regulatory boundaries—performance is reshaped by integration realities. The hard part of AI antenna design isn’t the math; it’s translating elegant optimization into a form-factor-constrained, system-integrated solution that actually ships.

Antennas as Spatial Filters: Why AI Optimization Works

At a fundamental level, antennas and frequency-selective filters solve the same class of problem—just in different domains. Filters shape energy across frequency; antennas shape energy across space. Both rely on linear systems, superposition, and well-defined governing equations that link geometry to response.

This parallel is especially clear in antenna arrays. The array factor that controls beamwidth, sidelobes, and null placement is mathematically analogous to a filter’s frequency response. Once framed this way, it becomes obvious why AI-driven optimization is so effective: it can explore vast, high-dimensional design spaces that are impractical to navigate manually.

However, optimization engines can only optimize what they are told to respect. Without explicit system boundaries, AI produces designs that are mathematically impressive—but disconnected from product reality.

Form Factor Is the Dominant Constraint in Real Antenna Design

In real products, antenna performance is rarely limited by theory. It is limited by where the antenna is allowed to exist.

Available volume, enclosure materials, PCB stack-ups, ground planes, batteries, displays, connectors, and shielding all reshape the electromagnetic environment long before the antenna radiates into free space. Millimeters of clearance or a shifted ground reference can outweigh any algorithmic refinement.

This is why antenna design cannot begin with geometry alone. The antenna must be co-designed with the product architecture. Industrial design, mechanical constraints, electronics placement, and regulatory requirements are not downstream implementation details—they are first-order inputs to antenna performance.

AI optimization amplifies this reality. When constraints are vague or introduced late, optimization converges on solutions that cannot survive integration. When constraints are explicit from the start, the same tools become extraordinarily effective at extracting maximum performance from minimal volume.

Form factor definition must precede antenna optimization.

Why Form Factor Dominates AI Antenna Design
(Theory & Optimization → System Constraints → Real Product Performance)

From Constraints to CAD: Where Optimization Engines Deliver Real Value

Once form factor and system constraints are clearly defined, antenna design becomes a bounded engineering problem—exactly the type that modern CAD tools and optimization engines are built to solve.

At this stage, electromagnetic CAD environments model antennas and arrays inside their actual product context. Enclosures, materials, PCB stack-ups, and nearby components are no longer assumptions; they are part of the simulation domain. For arrays, this is critical—mutual coupling and element interactions dominate performance and cannot be inferred from isolated elements.

Optimization engines then do what they do best: systematically explore trade spaces across geometry, placement, tuning, and array configuration. The objective is no longer theoretical optimality, but the best performance the product can realistically support.

Used this way, CAD tools become predictive rather than aspirational. Simulation correlates with measurement. Iterations converge faster. Late-stage surprises are minimized. Antenna design shifts from an academic exercise into a discipline that supports schedules, cost targets, and manufacturing realities.

AI does not replace systems engineering—it depends on it.

ORTENGA helps companies define the right system constraints before antenna optimization begins. By aligning business goals, product architecture, form factor, and regulatory boundaries upfront, ORTENGA ensures that CAD tools and AI optimization engines produce designs that integrate cleanly, perform predictably, and ship on schedule.

If your antenna program relies on advanced tools but struggles at integration, the issue is rarely the math.

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Horn Antennas: The Reference That Defines RF and Radar Performance

From Analytical Models to Chamber Validation—Why Horns Still Set the Standard

When accuracy matters, complexity is rarely the answer. In RF and radar systems, the most trusted antenna is not the most exotic one—but the one whose behavior is fully understood, mathematically predictable, and experimentally repeatable. Horn antennas endure as the reference standard because their performance aligns cleanly across theory, simulation, and measurement—making them the anchor for calibration, validation, and system confidence.

What Is a Horn Antenna?

A horn antenna is an aperture antenna that provides moderate to high gain, typically in the 10–20 dBi range, with well-controlled radiation characteristics. Structurally, it is a flared extension of a waveguide, designed to transform a guided electromagnetic mode into a free-space radiating wave with minimal reflection and loss.

This seemingly simple geometry is precisely what gives horn antennas their enduring value: they are governed by physics that can be modeled accurately and verified reliably.

Why Horn Antennas Perform So Predictably

Horn antennas exhibit high radiation efficiency and excellent impedance matching, enabled by the gradual taper of the waveguide-to-aperture transition. This controlled transition minimizes reflections, suppresses higher-order modes, and produces stable, repeatable radiation patterns.

Unlike many compact or highly optimized antenna structures, horn antennas rely far less on tuning, compensation, or empirical correction. Their performance is dominated by geometry and wavelength—parameters that are well understood and analytically tractable.

Frequency Considerations

Horn antennas are typically utilized at X-band and above, where waveguide dimensions are manageable and the horn’s predictable aperture behavior enables high gain and accurate radiation control. At lower frequencies, horn antennas become prohibitively large and heavy, as waveguide cross-sections and flare lengths must increase to maintain efficient single-mode operation and gain.

This natural frequency scaling is why horn antennas are most often found in radar, satellite communications, and RF measurement environments, rather than in size- or weight-constrained platforms.

Why Horn Antennas Are Used as Reference Antennas

One of the defining strengths of horn antennas is the exceptionally tight alignment between analytical models, electromagnetic simulations, and measured data. Gain, beamwidth, sidelobe levels, and phase behavior can be predicted with high confidence—and verified experimentally with minimal discrepancy.

Because of this, horn antennas are widely used as reference antennas in anechoic and antenna test chambers, serving as the calibration baseline against which other antennas and systems are measured. When absolute gain, pattern accuracy, or measurement traceability matters, horn antennas are often the benchmark.

From Component to System Confidence

Horn antennas are not chosen because they are novel or compact. They are chosen because they are trustworthy. In RF and radar systems, where calibration errors propagate quickly and measurement uncertainty can undermine entire programs, reference-grade behavior is more valuable than aggressive optimization.

Whether validating a radar front end, calibrating a measurement chamber, or anchoring system-level performance claims, horn antennas provide a stable foundation upon which accurate decisions can be made.

ORTENGA designs and develops horn antennas with a system-level mindset, ensuring that performance requirements, mechanical constraints, and validation objectives are aligned from the outset. From defining reference-grade specifications to supporting chamber calibration and system verification, our work ensures that horn antennas perform not just on paper—but in practice.

Audit → Design → Validate is not a slogan; it is how reference antennas earn trust.

When RF or radar performance must be measured, validated, and defended, reference-grade behavior matters more than novelty.

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